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John R. Brinkley
Brinkley, c. 1921
Born	John Romulus Brinkley (1885-07-08)July 8, 1885 Beta, Jackson County, North Carolina
Died	May 26, 1942(1942-05-26) (aged 56) San Antonio, Texas
Occupation	radio pioneer, charlatan
Known for	Goat gland transplantation[ane]
Political party	Independent
Spouse(s)	Emerge Wike (1907–1916) Minerva Telitha "Minnie" Jones (1913–1942)

John Romulus Brinkley (subsequently John Richard Brinkley; July eight, 1885 – May 26, 1942) was an American quack. He had no properly accredited education as a physician and bought his medical caste from a "diploma mill". Brinkley became known as the "caprine animal-gland doctor"^[2] after he achieved national fame, international notoriety and keen wealth through the xenotransplantation of caprine animal testicles into humans. Although initially Brinkley promoted this process as a means of curing male impotence, he afterwards claimed that the technique was a virtual panacea for a broad range of male ailments. Brinkley operated clinics and hospitals in several states and was able to continue practicing medicine for almost two decades despite his techniques being thoroughly discredited by the broader medical community.

He was also, virtually by accident, an advertising and radio pioneer who began the era of Mexican edge blaster radio.^{[3] [four]}

Although he was stripped of his license to exercise medicine in Kansas and several other states, Brinkley, a demagogue beloved past hundreds of thousands of people in Kansas and elsewhere, nevertheless launched two campaigns for Kansas governor, one of which was most successful. Brinkley'southward ascension to fame and fortune was as quick as his eventual fall was precipitous. At the elevation of his career he had clustered millions of dollars, but he died nearly penniless as a upshot of the big number of malpractice, wrongful death and fraud suits brought confronting him.^[5]

Early life [edit]

Brinkley was born to John Richard Brinkley, a poor mount man who practiced medicine in N Carolina and served equally a medic for the Confederate States Army during the American Civil State of war.^[iii] Brinkley senior's first marriage was annulled because he was underage.^[three] After he reached adulthood, he married 4 more times, and outlived each of his young wives. In 1870, at the age of 42, he married Sarah T. Mingus. Afterwards, the 24-yr-old niece of Mingus moved into the house: Sarah Candice Burnett.^[3] The family chosen Brinkley's wife "Sally" to differentiate between the 2 Sarahs.^[3] Sarah Burnett gave nascency out of marriage to John Romulus Brinkley in the town of Beta, in Jackson Canton, North Carolina, naming her son after his father, and later Romulus, the mythical twin suckled by wolves.^[3] Sarah Burnett died of pneumonia and tuberculosis when Brinkley was five.^[6] Sarah T. "Aunt Emerge" and John Brinkley moved with the young male child to Due east LaPorte within the same county, near the Tuckasegee River.^{[half dozen]} The family had little money during this fourth dimension.

John Richard Brinkley died when his son was 10 years one-time.^[6] Young Brinkley attended a one-room log cabin school in the Tuckasegee area, held each year during three or iv months of wintertime. There, Brinkley met Sally Margaret Wike, the girl of a well-off school board member.^[7] Emerge often delighted in tormenting the young Brinkley. When Brinkley was 13, the schoolhouse term was diffuse, and a amend teacher engaged. Brinkley finished his studies at xvi and began to work conveying post between local towns, and to learn how to use a telegraph. He wished, however, to become a doctor.^[7]

Family and pedagogy [edit]

As a telegrapher, Brinkley went to New York City to work for Western Union, after which he moved to New Jersey to piece of work at i, then another, railway visitor.^[8] In belatedly 1906, he returned abode to Aunt Emerge afterward hearing that she was unwell. She died on December 25, 1906.^[8] Subsequently, he was comforted by Sally Wike, age 22 and one year older than Brinkley. They married on Jan 27, 1907, in Sylva, North Carolina.^[8] They traveled around posing as Quaker doctors, giving rural towns a medicine testify where they hawked a patent medicine.^[8] Brinkley'due south next motility was to Knoxville, Tennessee, where he played correct-hand man, helping hawk virility "tonics" with a man named Dr. Shush.^[nine]

In 1907, Brinkley settled with his wife in Chicago, where they celebrated the birth of a daughter on November 5 – Wanda Marion Brinkley. The new male parent enrolled at Bennett Medical College, an unaccredited schoolhouse with questionable curricula focused on eclectic medicine.^{[ten] [xi]} Brinkley worked for Western Matrimony as a telegrapher at night and attended classes during the day, while debts mounted from tuition, the toll of raising a family, and from Emerge'due south self-centered whims. In 1908, the Brinkleys buried an infant son who had lived only 3 days.^[12]

At school, Brinkley was introduced to the report of glandular extracts and their effects on the man system. He adamant that this new field would help move his career forward.^[12] Afterwards 2 years of studies, and always-deeper debts, Brinkley doubled his summer workload past taking ii shifts at Western Union, merely came home i 24-hour interval to observe his wife and daughter gone.^[12] Sally filed for divorce and kid support, but afterward two months of payments, Brinkley kidnapped his daughter and fled with her to Canada. Sally Brinkley, unable to obtain an extradition gild from Canada, dismissed her suit for pension and child support, assuasive Brinkley to render to Chicago with the child. The couple reunited in their rocky marriage.^[12]

In 1911, before Brinkley was finished with his third twelvemonth of studies, Sally left him once again, and bore him another daughter, Erna Maxine Brinkley, on July 11, 1911, back dwelling in the Tuckasegee area.^[12] Brinkley left Chicago and his unpaid tuition bills to return to Due north Carolina and join his family. There, he began working every bit an "undergraduate physician",^[12] but failed to establish himself. He moved his family unit around to different towns in Florida and North Carolina, "packing up and going all the time from one place to another".^[12]

Diploma mill [edit]

In 1912, Brinkley left his family to attempt to regain the thread of his education, this fourth dimension in St. Louis, Missouri. He was unable to pay Bennett Medical Higher the tuition he owed them, then they refused to forward his scholastic records to whatever of the medical schools that Brinkley had approached.^[12] Instead, Brinkley bought a document from a shady diploma mill known as the Kansas Urban center Eclectic Medical University and returned home. On February 11, 1913, his daughter Naomi Beryl Brinkley was born.^[12] The family of v immediately moved to New York Metropolis, and shortly thereafter to Chicago. When Brinkley refused to give up his goal of becoming a medico, Sally Brinkley left him one terminal time, taking the three girls home to North Carolina.^[12]

Brinkley fix a storefront concern in Greenville, South Carolina, with a human named James E. Crawford (using the alias J. W. Burks).^[thirteen] The two opened their shop as the "Greenville Electro Medic Doctors", and placed advertisements to attract men who were concerned most their manly vigor.^[xiii] They injected colored h2o into their patients at $25 a shot ($700 in current dollars), telling them information technology was Salvarsan^[13] or "electric medicine from Germany".^[xiv] Later on 2 months, the partners hurriedly left town with unpaid rent, utility bills and debts for clothing and pharmaceutical supplies. The local newspaper reported that the duo left about 30 to 40 local merchants with unpaid checks.^[13] They ended up where Crawford had once lived, in Memphis, Tennessee.^[13]

2d marriage [edit]

In Memphis, Brinkley met 21-year-erstwhile Minerva Telitha "Minnie" Jones, a friend of Crawford's and the daughter of a local medico. On August 23, 1913, subsequently a four-24-hour interval courtship,^[fourteen] Brinkley and Jones married at the Peabody Hotel, fifty-fifty though he was still married to Sally Brinkley. Minnie and John Brinkley honeymooned in Kansas Urban center, Denver, Pocatello and Knoxville. Brinkley was arrested in Knoxville and extradited to Greenville where he was put in jail for practicing medicine without a license and for writing bad checks.^[13] Brinkley told the sheriff that it was all Crawford's fault, and gave investigators enough information that they were able to arrest Crawford in Pocatello. The two former partners met once more in jail.^[13] Brinkley and Minerva had a son, John, who would commit suicide in the 1970s.

Brinkley and Crawford decided to settle out of courtroom with Greenville's angry merchants for a sum of several thousand dollars, most of which Crawford paid. Brinkley's new male parent-in-law paid Brinkley'southward bail, but only contributed $200 to his fraudulent debt settlement ($5,800 in electric current value.).^[xv] Brinkley rejoined Minnie Brinkley in Memphis. There, Sally Brinkley confronted the couple, informing Minnie Brinkley that her hubby was a bigamist.^[13] Minnie and John Brinkley moved to Judsonia, Arkansas, where he again obtained an "undergraduate license" to practice medicine, advertising his specialty every bit "diseases of women and children".^[13] He made picayune profit, and joined the Regular army Reserve Medical Corps.^[xiii]

Brinkley accepted an offering to have over the office of another doctor who was moving out of state. Brinkley began to turn a modest profit, and was finally able to pay Bennett Medical University the amount owed for tuition. In October 1914, the Brinkleys moved to Kansas City where he enrolled at that city's Eclectic Medical Academy to finish out his last year remaining of the teaching he started at Bennett. Afterward studying the irritations and enlargements of the prostate gland in elderly men, and paying the university $100 ($ii,700 in current value), Brinkley graduated on May 7, 1915. His diploma from Eclectic immune him to practice medicine in eight states.^{[xv] [13]} While in Kansas Urban center, Brinkley took a task as the doctor for the Swift and Visitor plant, patching modest wounds and studying brute physiology. It was here that Brinkley learned that pop opinion held that the healthiest animate being slaughtered at the establish was the goat, something that would evidence pivotal to his later on medical career.^[16]

To resolve the possibility of his bigamy existence exposed, Minnie pushed Brinkley to file for divorce from Sally, which he did in Dec 1915. To forestall the court from inquiring of Sally straight, he wrote that they had been married in New York City, and that he did not know her current place of residence. The divorce was finalized on Feb 21, 1916.^[17] Four days afterwards, Minnie and Brinkley were married over again, this fourth dimension in Freedom, Missouri. Brinkley had non waited the required vi months from divorce to subsequent remarriage.^[17]

In 1917, Brinkley, now an Army Reservist, was called up for service during World War I. Yet, he merely served a niggling over two months, most of the duration of which he was sick with a nervous breakup, before being discharged. In Oct of the aforementioned yr, Brinkley and his wife moved to Milford, Kansas, after having spotted a newspaper advert saying the town needed a doctor.^[18]

Caprine animal gland transplantation [edit]

In 1918, Brinkley opened a 16-room clinic in Milford, where he won over the locals immediately past paying good wages, invigorating the local economy and making house calls on patients afflicted with the virulent and deadly outbreak of the 1918 flu pandemic. For all his subsequently infamy as a charlatan, accounts of his success at nursing flu victims back to health, and the lengths to which he went to care for them, were resoundingly positive.^[19]

Operating room at the Brinkley Hospital, Milford

As recounted in the biography that Brinkley had deputed, he struck upon the idea of transplanting goat testicles into men when a patient came to him to ask if he could set up someone who was "sexually weak". Brinkley responded past joking that the patient would take no problem if he had "a pair of those buck [goat] glands in yous". The patient then begged Brinkley to try the operation, which Brinkley did, for $150. (The patient'south son later told The Kansas City Star that Brinkley had in fact offered to pay his male parent "handsomely" if he'd go along with the experiment.)^[16]

At his clinic, Brinkley began to perform more operations he claimed would restore male virility and fertility through implanting the testicular glands of goats in his male patients at a cost of $750 per operation^[twenty] ($10,100 in electric current dollars). Post-obit one of his crude operations, the body of a patient would typically absorb the caprine animal tissue as foreign thing. The caprine animal gonads failed to engraft into the body, as they were only placed within the human male person testicle sac or the abdomen of women, near the ovaries.

Unsurprisingly, in light of his questionable medical grooming (75 percentage completion at a less-than-reputable medical schoolhouse), frequency of operating while intoxicated and less-than-sterile operating environments, some patients suffered from infection, and an undetermined number died. Brinkley would be sued more than a dozen times for wrongful death between 1930 and 1941.^[21]

1920 newspaper item highlighting "Billy", the "First Goat-Gland Baby"

Before long after Brinkley opened up store, he scored an advertising coup that made major newspapers come calling: the wife of his showtime goat gland transplantation patient gave birth to a baby male child. Brinkley began promoting goat glands as a cure for 27 ailments, ranging from dementia to emphysema to flatulence.^[22] He started a direct mail rush and hired an advertising agent, who helped Brinkley portray his treatments as turning hapless men into "the ram that am with every lamb".^[23] His burst of publicity—and his stratospheric claims—attracted the attending of the American Medical Association, which sent an agent to the clinic to investigate hugger-mugger. The agent found a woman hobbling around Brinkley's clinic who had been given goat ovaries equally a cure for a spinal cord tumor. From so on, Brinkley was on the AMA'south radar, including communicable the eye of the physician who would somewhen be responsible for his downfall, Morris Fishbein, who fabricated his career exposing medical frauds.^[22]

At the aforementioned time, other doctors were also experimenting with gland transplantation, including Serge Voronoff, who had become known for grafting monkey testicles into men. In 1920, Voronoff demonstrated his technique earlier several other doctors at a hospital in Chicago, at which Brinkley showed upwards uninvited. Though Brinkley was barred at the door, his appearance elevated his profile in the press, which somewhen resulted in his own demonstration at a hospital in Chicago. Brinkley transplanted caprine animal testicles into 34 patients, including a approximate, an alderman, a social club matron and the chancellor of the now-defunct Chicago Law School (not to exist confused with the University of Chicago Constabulary School), all while the press looked on.^[24] His public contour grew, and his gland business in Milford continued at a brisk pace.

In 1922, Brinkley traveled to Los Angeles at the invitation of Harry Chandler, owner of the Los Angeles Times, who challenged Brinkley to transplant goat testicles into 1 of his editors. If the operation was a success, Chandler wrote, he would make Brinkley the "most famous surgeon in America", and if not and so he should consider himself "damned".^[25] California didn't recognize Brinkley'due south license to practice medicine from the Eclectic Medical University, merely Chandler pulled some strings and got him a thirty-day permit. The performance was judged a success, and Brinkley received his promised attention in Chandler'southward paper, which sent many new customers Brinkley's way, including some Hollywood flick stars.^[26] Brinkley was then taken with the urban center—and all the money information technology represented in the form of potential patients—that he began making plans to relocate his dispensary at that place. Merely his hopes were dashed when the California medical board denied his application for a permanent license to exercise medicine, having found his resume "riddled with lies and discrepancies" (most of which were discovered and pointed out to the board past Fishbein). Brinkley returned to Kansas undaunted and began to expand his clinic in Milford.^[27]

Brinkley's activities inspired the motion picture industry term 'goat gland'—the grafting of talkie sequences onto silent films to make them marketable.^[28]

Brinkley'southward first radio station [edit]

While in Los Angeles, Brinkley toured KHJ, a radio station Chandler owned. He immediately saw the power radio held as an advertising and marketing medium and resolved to build his own to promote his services, even though at the time advertising on public airwaves was very much discouraged. By 1923, he had plenty capital to build KFKB ("Kansas First, Kansas All-time" or sometimes "Kansas Folks Know All-time")^{[xvi] [29]} using a 1 kilowatt transmitter. That same year, the St. Louis Star published a scathing expose of medical diploma mills, and in 1924, the Kansas Urban center Journal Post followed suit, bringing unwelcome attending Brinkley'south way. In July 1924, a grand jury in San Francisco handed down xix indictments to people responsible for conferring fake medical degrees, and for some doctors who received them; Brinkley was 1, due more often than not to his questionable application for a California medical license. When agents from California came to arrest Brinkley, the governor of Kansas, Jonathan M. Davis, refused to extradite him because he made the state too much coin.^[thirty] Brinkley took to his radio station'due south airwaves to crow well-nigh his victory over the American Medical Association and Fishbein, who by this time had started giving speeches and writing articles for the Journal of the American Medical Association deriding Brinkley and his treatments as quackery. His gland business made more money than e'er, and had begun alluring patients from around the globe.^[31]

Brinkley spoke for hours on end each day on the radio, primarily promoting his caprine animal gland treatments. He variously cajoled, shamed and appealed to men's (and women's) egos, and to their desire to be more sexually active. In between Brinkley's ain advertisements, his new station featured a variety of entertainment including military bands, French lessons, astrological forecasts, storytelling and exotica such as native Hawaiian songs, and American roots music including old-time string ring, gospel and early country.^[32]

The advertising boost his radio station gave him was enormous, and Milford benefited as well; Brinkley paid for a new sewage arrangement and sidewalks, installed electricity, built a bandstand and apartments for his patients and employees, as well as a new post office to handle all of his post. He was named an "admiral" in the Kansas Navy and sponsored a hometown baseball team called the Brinkley Goats.^[16]

Eager for improve credentials, in 1925 Brinkley traveled to Europe searching for honorary degrees. After beingness rebuffed by several institutes in the Britain, Brinkley found a willing suitor in the university in Pavia, Italy. Fishbein and Brinkley'due south former teacher, Max Thorek, heard about the degree and pressured the Italian government to rescind it. Benito Mussolini himself revoked the degree, though Brinkley claimed it until he died.^[33] Fishbein's interest in putting Brinkley out of business concern grew and he wrote more articles featuring stories about people who had grown sick or died after seeing Brinkley. But the AMA journal'southward readership was by and large restricted to other doctors, while Brinkley's radio station poured straight into peoples' homes every day.

Minnie Brinkley holding John Richard Brinkley III

After his nativity on September three, 1927, the tiny vocalization of Brinkley's son John Richard Brinkley Three, nicknamed "Johnny Male child", was heard on the radio program. Aware of the infant'due south arrival after 14 years of marriage, some observers wondered if Brinkley had taken his ain goat gland treatment. The Brinkleys denied such rumors.^[34]

Medical Question Box [edit]

Brinkley began claiming his goat glands could also aid male prostate problems, and expanded his business over again.^[35] He too started a new radio segment called "Medical Question Box", where he would read listeners' medical complaints over the air and advise proprietary treatments. These treatments were only available at a network of pharmacies that were members of the "Brinkley Pharmaceutical Association". These affiliated pharmacies sold Brinkley's over the counter medicines at highly inflated prices, sent a portion of their profit dorsum to Brinkley and kept the rest.^[36] It is estimated that this generated $14,000 in turn a profit weekly for Brinkley, or nigh $11,809,000 per year in current value. Reports of patients who took Brinkley's suggested treatments showing up sick at some other dr.'s function began to grow, and eventually Merck & Co. pharmaceuticals, whose medicines Brinkley routinely misprescribed, requested Fishbein take action; the AMA responded that they had no power over Brinkley, save to endeavor to inform the public.^[37]

The Kansas Metropolis Star, which owned a radio station that competed with Brinkley'due south, ran an unfavorable series of reports on him. By 1930, when the Kansas Medical Board held a formal hearing to determine whether Brinkley'due south medical license should exist revoked, Brinkley had signed death certificates for 42 people, many of whom were not sick when they showed up at his clinic. It is unclear how many more of Brinkley's patients may have become ill or later died elsewhere.^[38] The medical board revoked his license, stating that Brinkley "has performed an organized charlatanism ... quite beyond the invention of the apprehensive mountebank".^[16]

Six months later on losing his medical license, the Federal Radio Commission refused to renew his station's broadcasting license, finding that Brinkley's broadcasts were mostly advertisement, which violated international treaties, that he broadcast obscene cloth, and that his Medical Question Box series was "opposite to the public interest". He sued the commission, but the courts upheld the revocation and the case KFKB Broadcasting Association v. Federal Radio Commission became a landmark case in broadcast law.^{[16] [39]}

Political career [edit]

Brinkley reacted to losing his medical and broadcast licenses by launching a bid to become the Governor of Kansas, a political position that would enable him to appoint his own members to the medical board and thus regain his correct to exercise medicine in the state. He kicked off his candidacy merely three days after he lost his medical license, using his radio station to assistance his campaign.^[40] At his side was KFKB's biggest country-music star, Roy Faulkner, who took to the phase with guitar and hat in paw. A populist, Brinkley campaigned on a vague program of public works (a state lake in every canton), pedagogy (free textbooks for public schoolchildren and increased educational opportunities for blacks), lower taxes, and quondam-age pensions. He appealed to the immigrant vote past putting German language and Swedish-speaking people on the air at KFKB. Brinkley enlisted a airplane pilot with his ain plane (Brinkley dubbed it The Romancer)^[sixteen] to deliver him in yard style at his campaign rallies. In short, Brinkley was a master of the publicity stunt; when a prominent paper reporter ran an article critical of his qualifications to run a state, Brinkley sent him a goat.^[41]

External prototype
1930 gubernatorial campaign advertisement, published in the Belleville Telescope. Touting Brinkley'due south military service during World War I and decrying the loss of his medical license, the ad instructs voters explicitly how to vote for the write-in candidate.

His campaign was conducted every bit an independent write-in candidate, because he waited to declare his candidacy until September, subsequently the ballots had already been printed. Three days before the election, the Kansas attorney general (who had prosecuted Brinkley before the medical board) announced that the rules surrounding write-in candidates had inverse, and that the md'southward proper noun could simply be written in 1 specific way for the vote to count (as J. R. Brinkley). As a write-in candidate, he received more than 180,000 votes (29.5 percent of the vote) and lost to Harry Hines Woodring, after Secretary of State of war in the cabinet of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.^[42] An commodity published at the time in The Des Moines Register estimated that betwixt 30,000 and 50,000 ballots were disqualified in this way. Woodring later admitted that had those votes counted, Brinkley would have won.^{[43] [44]}

Brinkley ran again in 1932 as an Independent, receiving 244,607 votes (30.6 per centum of the vote), losing to Republican Alf Landon, later Republican nominee for President in 1936.^[45]

His prospects for success in Kansas destroyed, Brinkley sold KFKB to an insurance company and decided to motility closer to the Mexican border, where he could operate a high-power radio station with dispensation. Though he could no longer practice medicine in Kansas, he kept his Milford clinic open and put two of his protégés in charge.^[46] Wooed past the prospect of being a large fish in a very small pond, Brinkley relocated to Del Rio, Texas, which lay just beyond a bridge from Mexico.

Later in the decade, Brinkley became a Nazi sympathizer.^[47]

Brinkley and radio [edit]

The Mexican authorities, eager to get even with its northern neighbors for dividing upward North America's radio frequencies without giving whatever to Mexico, granted Brinkley a l,000-watt radio license and construction began on XER, his new "border blaster" across the bridge from Del Rio in Villa Acuña, Coahuila (since renamed Ciudad Acuña).^[16] As construction got underway, Fishbein and the U.S. Country Section desperately searched for a style to shut Brinkley down. Under heavy pressure from the State Department, the Mexican government halted construction on XER, but it was only temporary. Inside weeks, construction resumed and presently 2 300-foot (91 k) towers reached into the sky.^[48] XER, at 840 kilohertz on the AM punch, radiated by a heaven wave antenna, made its first broadcast in October 1931. Brinkley chosen information technology the "Sunshine Station Between the Nations".

Brinkley used his new edge blaster to resume his entrada for governor by using the phone to phone call in his broadcasts to the transmitter. This approach did non work, and he lost yet some other political campaign; he would lose once more in 1934. Though Brinkley's American radio license had been revoked, XER'due south signal was so strong that information technology could still be heard in Kansas.^[49] In 1932, the Mexican government allowed Brinkley to increase his wattage to 150,000 watts. Several months later on, Brinkley was immune to increase to one million watts, "making XER far and abroad the almost powerful radio station on the planet" that, on a clear night, could be heard every bit far abroad as Canada. According to accounts of the time, the point was so stiff that it turned on auto headlights, made bedsprings hum, and caused broadcasts to bleed into telephone conversations.^[l] Local residents claimed to non need a radio to hear Brinkley's station; with ranchers claiming that they received it through their metallic fences and in their dental appliances.^[51]

Brinkley continued his one-time radio format of medical advice keyed to advertising products. Male person listeners were offered an array of expensive concoctions which included Mercurochrome injections and pills, all designed to help them regain their sexual prowess. At the clinic in the hotel where he lived he also performed prostate operations. He likewise began selling airtime to other advertisers (at $1,700 an hour, $27,600 in current value), giving rise to new hucksters shilling products such as "Crazy Water Crystals", "genuine simulated" diamonds, life insurance, and an assortment of religious paraphernalia, including what was purported to be autographed pictures of Jesus Christ. Brinkley also continued packing his radio lineup with upwardly-and-coming state and roots singers whose careers his radio station helped launch (including Patsy Montana, Red Foley, Factor Autry, Jimmie Rodgers, the Carter Family, the Pickard Family, and others). Del Rio became known as "Hillbilly Hollywood".^[52]

When the FRC banned what they called "spooks" (mind readers, fortune-tellers and other mystics) from broadcasting on U.Due south. radio in 1932, many of them followed Brinkley'due south model, opening their own border blasters in United mexican states. By 1932, xi such stations had opened, including XENT, XERB, XELO, XEG and XEPN.^[53]

Brinkley was still shuttling back and forth from Milford to Del Rio, often broadcasting from XER over the telephone. But in 1932, Congress passed a law outlawing this practice, known equally the Brinkley Deed. Unfazed, Brinkley began using some of the start "electric transcriptions"—what today would exist called pre-recordings—to circumvent the law. Effectually this time, Brinkley decided to sever the residuum of his ties to Kansas, closing down his infirmary there and opening a new one in Del Rio, which took up three floors of the Roswell Hotel, where he lived with his married woman.^[54]

In 1934, Mexico revoked Brinkley's circulate license, the outcome of pressure from the U.s.. Soldiers from the Mexican army arrived at the station's doorstep to shut him downwardly, and for a time he had to broadcast from nearby XEPN, located in Piedras Negras, Coahuila.

Though Brinkley connected to perform the occasional goat gland transplant, in Texas his practice shifted more often than not to performing slightly modified vasectomies and prostate "rejuvenations" (for which he charged up to $i,000 per operation ($nineteen,800 in current value), and prescribed his own proprietary medicine for after-intendance.^[55] His business, fueled by radio advertisements and speeches, continued to thrive, and he opened another clinic in San Juan, Texas, specializing in the colon.^[56] By 1936, Brinkley had amassed plenty wealth to build a mansion for himself and his married woman on sixteen acres (6.5 ha) of land. Brinkley boasted a stable of a dozen Cadillacs, a greenhouse, a foaming fountain garden surrounded past viii,000 bushes, exotic animals imported from the Galapagos Islands, and a swimming pool with a 10-foot (3.0 m) diving belfry.^[57] Brinkley continued living high in Del Rio, until in 1938 a rival dr. began cutting into Brinkley'southward business organisation by offer like procedures much more cheaply. When Del Rio'southward city elders refused to put the competitor out of business, Brinkley closed upward shop and reopened in downtown Little Rock, Arkansas, with another hospital at what is now Marylake Monastery. His competition from Del Rio opened a new cancer centre in Eureka Springs, Arkansas, about 150 miles (240 km) northwest of Petty Rock.^[58]

Trial and expiry [edit]

Grave of John R. Brinkley in 2011

In 1938, Brinkley's old nemesis, Morris Fishbein, entered the picture show again with a vengeance, publishing a two-office series chosen "Modernistic Medical Charlatans" that included a thorough repudiation of Brinkley'south checky career, as well equally exposing his questionable medical credentials. Brinkley sued Fishbein for libel and $250,000 in amercement ($4,810,000 in current value).^[59] The trial began on March 22, 1939, before Texas guess R. J. MacMillan.^[60] A few days later, the jury establish for Fishbein, stating that Brinkley "should be considered a charlatan and a quack in the ordinary, well-understood significant of those words".^[61] The jury verdict unleashed a barrage of lawsuits confronting Brinkley, by some estimates well over $3 million in total value. Also around this time, the Internal Revenue Service began investigating him for taxation fraud. He alleged defalcation in 1941, the same year the U.Due south. and Mexico reached an agreement on allocating radio bandwidth and shut downwardly XERA.

Shortly later on his bankruptcy the U.S. Post Office Section began investigating him for mail fraud, and Brinkley became a patient himself, having suffered three middle attacks and the amputation of one of his legs due to poor circulation. On May 26, 1942, Brinkley died penniless of heart failure in San Antonio; the mail fraud case had non yet come to trial. He was later buried at Forest Hill Cemetery in Memphis, Tennessee.

His grave was defaced in early 2017. The winged affections atop the column marker his grave was cut off and stolen.^[62]

His house, commonly called the Brinkley Mansion, still stands today at 512 Qualia Drive in Del Rio and has been designated Texas Historic Landmark number 13015.^{[63] [64]}

Legacy [edit]

Brinkley's life and career is the subject of several books written in the 20th and 21st centuries, including works by Clement Wood (1934 or 1936), Gerald Carson (1960), R. Alton Lee (2002), and Pope Brock (2008). In 2012, Brinkley was featured in episode ane of season iii of the Travel Channel series Mysteries at the Museum. In 2016, managing director Penny Lane fabricated Nuts!, a documentary about Brinkley'due south life that uses animation to illustrate scenes from his life. The Answer All podcast episode #86, "Man of the People", is near Brinkley's life. A film based on the podcast episode is in development, to be written past manager Richard Linklater and starring Academy Award nominee Robert Downey Jr.^{[65] [66]} In 2020, Untitled Theater Company No. 61 released a four-role audio drama podcast by Edward Einhorn and hosted by Dan Butler, entitled The Resistible Ascent of J. R. Brinkley ^{[67] [68]}

References [edit]

1. ^ John R. Brinkley as the subject of an episode of the podcast Reply All
2. ^ "Goat Gland Doctor (1986)". Texas Annal of the Moving Paradigm . Retrieved December i, 2019.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Lee, 2002, p. 2.
4. ^ Hutchens, John K. (June 7, 1942). "Notes on the Late Dr. John R. Brinkley, Whom Radio Raised to a Certain Fame". New York Times . Retrieved 2009-05-07 . Although other men have put the air-waves to more dangerous uses than did the belatedly Dr. John Romulus Brinkley, the recent demise of that celebrated quack not only recalled a gaudy career but may have reminded you of a truth so obvious that it goes half-forgotten – i.e., how mighty a force is radio for evil also as skilful, even in a democracy.
5. ^ Wardlaw, Frank (1981). "The Caprine animal-Gland Man". Southwest Review. 66 (2): 208. JSTOR 43469345.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Lee, 2002, pp. iii–4.
7. ^ ^{a b} Lee, 2002, p. 8.
8. ^ ^{a b c d} Lee, 2002, pp. eleven–12.
9. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. vii-9
10. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 15.
11. ^ Lee, 2002, p. xiii.
12. ^ ^{a b c d e f thousand h i j} Lee, 2002, pp. 17–xix.
13. ^ ^{a b c d e f thou h i j one thousand} Lee, 2002, pp. twenty–22.
14. ^ ^{a b} Brock, 2008, p. 21
15. ^ ^{a b} Brock, 2008, p. 24
16. ^ ^{a b c d due east f g h} *Fowler, Factor and Crawford, Beak. Border Radio: Quacks, yodelers, pitchmen, psychics, and other astonishing broadcasters of the American airwaves, Texas Monthly Press, Austin. 1987.
17. ^ ^{a b} Lee, 2002, pp. 23–24.
18. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 27, 39-40
19. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 39-twoscore
20. ^ Brock, 2008, p. twoscore
21. ^ Lee, 2002, p. 219
22. ^ ^{a b} Brock, 2008, p. 41
23. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 43-44, 47
24. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 47-48
25. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 56-57
26. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 58-59
27. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 67
28. ^ John Belton: 'Awkward Transitions: Hitchcock's "Blackmail" and the Dynamics of Early Film Sound' in The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 83, No. ii (Summertime 1999), pp. 227-246
29. ^ Zwonitzer, Marking (2002). Will You Miss Me When I'm Gone?: The Carter Family & Their Legacy in American Music. Simon & Schuster. p. 203. ISBN978-0-684-85763-3.
30. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 89-ninety
31. ^ Brock, 2008, p. xc
32. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 101-102
33. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 115-117
34. ^ Lee, 2002, p. 72
35. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 120
36. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 122-124
37. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 130
38. ^ Brock, 2008.
39. ^ Simmons, Steven J., ed. (1978), Fairness Doctrine and the Media, University of California Press, pp. 33–35, ISBN978-0-520-03585-0 , retrieved July 1, 2010
40. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 155
41. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 156-159
42. ^ "POLITICAL NOTES: Capric Candidate". Time Magazine. October 17, 1932. Archived from the original on October 27, 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-17 . Two years ago Governor Woodring squeezed into office with a majority of 319 votes. John Brinkley, his name not on the ballot, polled close to the leaders with 188,000 votes.
43. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 160-162
44. ^ Lee, 2002, pp. 127–129
45. ^ Lee, 2002, p. 147
46. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 165
47. ^ Dash, Mike (18 April 2008). "John Brinkley, the goat-gland dishonest". The Telegraph . Retrieved 31 May 2020.
48. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 168
49. ^ Lee, 2002, p. 159
50. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 175-176
51. ^ Lee, 2002, p. 173
52. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 177-178
53. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 179
54. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 192-193
55. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 199-200
56. ^ Brock, 2008 p. 201
57. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 208-209
58. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 222
59. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 224-225
60. ^ Brock, 2008, pp. 231-233
61. ^ Brock, 2008, p. 264
62. ^ Loftiss, Neil. "Report of grave defacement". Memphis in Pictures - Facebook.
63. ^ Wikimapia. "Brinkley Mansion in Del Rio". Retrieved 2010-06-17 .
64. ^ Texas Historical Committee (2003). "Brinkley Mansion". Retrieved 2010-06-17 . This site was one time farmland irrigated past Del Rio's canal system. Construction on this house began in the early 1930s. In 1934, infamous "goat-gland doctor" John R. Brinkley and his wife, Minnie (Jones), bought the domicile, which exhibits elements of the Spanish eclectic mode. The couple enlarged it and added elaborate water features on the grounds, complete with menagerie, flashing colored lights and loudspeakers connected to a pipe organ within. Local residents often came to trip the light fantastic to the music and enjoy the light show at the local landmark, which the Brinkley family unit owned for 46 years.
65. ^ Saperstein, Pat (14 Feb 2017). "Robert Downey Jr. to Star in Richard Linklater Movie Based on Podcast". Variety.
66. ^ Pedersen, Erik (14 February 2017). "Robert Downey Jr. To Star In Con Man Pic Based On Podcast; Richard Linklater Directs". Borderline.
67. ^ Kniggendorf, Anne (19 Feb 2021). "How a Huckster Kansan Became 1917's Donald Trump of Erections". The Pitch.
68. ^ Rodger, Shaun (one Jan 2021). "The Resistible Rise of J. R. Brinkley audio drama review". Prepare The Tape.

Sources

• Branyan, Helen B. "Medical Charlatanism: The Goat Gland Magician of Milford, Kansas." The Journal of Popular Culture 25#one (1991): 31–37. online
• Bonner, Thomas Neville. The Kansas doctor: a century of pioneering, University of Kansas Printing, 1959, p. 210.
• Brinkley, John R. Dr. Brinkley's Doctor Book, J.R. Brinkley, 1937.
• Brock, Pope. Charlatan: America'southward Near Unsafe Huckster, the Man Who Pursued Him, and the Age of Flimflam, Crown Publishing. 2008. ISBN 0-307-33988-2
• Carson, Gerald. The Roguish World of Doctor Brinkley, Rinehart, New York, 1960.
• Clark, Carroll D., and Noel P. Gist. "Dr. John R. Brinkley: A Case Report In Collective Behavior." Kansas Journal of Sociology (1966): 52–58. in JSTOR
• Fowler, Gene and Crawford, Pecker. Border Radio: Quacks, yodelers, pitchmen, psychics, and other amazing broadcasters of the American airwaves, Texas Monthly Press, Austin. 1987. ISBN 0-87719-066-6
• Hale, Volition Thomas and Merritt, Dixon Lanier. A History of Tennessee and Tennesseans, Volume Vii, Lewis Publishing, 1913, pp. 2026–2027.
• Lee, R. Alton. The Baroque Careers of John R. Brinkley, Academy Press of Kentucky. 2002. ISBN 0-8131-2232-5
• Lichty, Lawrence Wilson and Topping, Malachi C. American broadcasting: a source book on the history of radio and television, Hastings Business firm, 1975, p. 558.
• Musial, Matthew. Md Brinkley: A Homo and His Calling, illustrated, Del Rio. 1983. (sixteen folio comic book biography)
• Resler, Ansel Harlan. The Impact of John R. Brinkley on Broadcasting in the United States, Northwestern Academy, 1958
• Riney‐Kehrberg, Pamela. "The radio diary of Mary Dyck, 1936–1955: The listening habits of a Kansas farm woman." Journal of Radio Studies 5.2 (1998): 66–79.
• Rudel, Anthony J. Hi, Everybody!, Harcourt, 2008. ISBN 978-0-fifteen-101275-half-dozen
• Shelby, Maurice Due east. "John R. Brinkley and the Kansas City Star." Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 22#1 (1978): 33–45. online
• Wallis, James Harold. The pol; his habits, outcries, and protective coloring, Arno Press, 1974. ISBN 0-405-05904-3
• Wood, Clement. The Life of a Man: A Biography of John R. Brinkley, Goshorn, 1937.

External links [edit]

• Dr. Brinkley, A Man and His Calling
• Audio clip of Brinkley at Wfmu.org
• NPR's On the Media Story about Brinkley
• A photograph of one of Brinkley'south campaign trucks
• A promotional pamphlet for Brinkley's hospitals
• The Retentivity Palace, history podcast episode: "Y'all Know Yous're Sick"
• Nuts! - the official website of the motion picture
• The Resistible Rise of J. R. Brinkley - audio drama podcast

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